"I'm rather like a mosquito in a nudist camp: I know what I ought to do, but I don't know where to begin." - Stephen Bayne
The Book of Lists tells us that public speaking is the Number One human fear (death is sixth). Of all speaking situations, professional talks can understandably be the most stressful because colleagues, peers, current and potential bosses, as well as funding agency representatives, will be judging you and your presentation. Having reminded you why any sane individual is justifiably anxious when faced with giving a scientific talk, we will also remind you that with proper preparation you can make certain that your time at the lectern will be a professional asset.
We stress and restress preparation here because it is an area of extreme vulnerability in scientific talks. Familiarity with your subject and confidence in your research is not enough to give a good oral presentation. Those factors can, in fact, work against giving a good talk. They can produce a false sense of security, make you careless in your preparation and let you take too much for granted with your audience.
You are invited to speak because someone believes that you have knowledge worth sharing and assumes that you are a competent enough public speaker to effectively communicate that information. The principles of good public speaking apply to scientific presentations as much as they do to political rallies or testimonial dinners. Speakers who believe their credentials and knowledge of the topic negate the need for proper preparation and the development of public speaking skills can convey only part of their messages. If your talk is not well prepared and you do not deliver it in a manner that gains and holds the attention of your audience, much of the knowledge you hope to share will be lost.
Assessing the Audience
An extremely important part of effectively communicating what you know is tailoring your presentation to your audience's needs and level of understanding. The very first step in preparing an invited oral presentation, then, is to learn as much as possible about your audience. This will often be self-evident, but if in doubt, ask questions.
It is easier to speak to either all experts or all nonexperts. If the entire audience is expert in your field, you speak to them as insiders and have an opportunity to dazzle and excite them with your knowledge and enthusiasm. If it is a group of nonexperts, you can still dazzle and excite them, but you must adjust the scope and level of your material, which may require a lot more thought and effort than you might anticipate.
A big problem for scientific speakers arises when addressing a combined group of experts and nonexperts. As an expert, it is insulting and a waste of time to be "talked down to;" as a nonexpert, it is frustrating and a waste of time to be subjected to a talk that is beyond one's level of comprehension.
To strike a happy medium in such a situation, try to accommodate both levels of understanding with a carefully crafted compromise from which everyone gains something. One useful suggestion is to devote half to two-thirds of your time to an introduction or overview of your subject and save the highly technical material for the remaining time. Nonexperts understand and learn from the first part and experts comprehend and are attuned to the technical information. Experts may also gain new insights on how to present the subject to nonexperts.
Another useful approach is to give the more involved technical material, then to summarize with "in other words..." or "by analogy..." when you restate the information in simplified, plain English. These brief summaries should be done throughout the course of your talk and often enough to prevent those not following the technical information from drifting off.
This publication is aimed primarily at scientists giving talks to other scientists. Please see the section entitled "Addressing a Nonscientific Audience" toward the end of this text for a few pointers on giving a scientific talk to a lay audience or the media.
Fitting Into the Program
In preparing your talk, it is important to have a clear understanding of how your talk will fit into the total program and how it should mesh with any other related presentations. It is very unnerving to hear the speaker(s) before you cover much or most of the material you intended to cover or to have prepared an introductory talk and learn only minutes before you take the podium that you are responsible for the summary and conclusion.
Ask questions about the program.
This is very important information when preparing visual aids.
If you are to be the first speaker in a series of talks on related subjects, your presentation can appropriately include definitions, underlying assumptions, historical background or other introductory material. If you are the final speaker in the series, summaries and conclusions are appropriate. If you are a middle speaker, it is reasonable to assume that the introductory material will have been covered before you reach the podium. To be on the safe side, however, it is wise to have a few notes to help you quickly fill any possible gaps.
Extra challenges are presented to speakers who are slotted right before lunch, right after lunch, at the end of the day and at the end of the meeting. These are times when a dash of the theatrical or some humor is helpful in capturing and holding the audience's attention; but don't overdo it.
Content
Many scientific speakers make the mistake of overlooking the fact that effective communication requires both the sending and receiving of information. Part of the speaker's job, then, is to help put the audience in the "receive mode." A good speaker's fascination with the subject is transmitted to the audience and captures their interest to gain their full attention.
In preparing your talk, ask yourself a few questions. Incorporating the answers into your talk will help you bring your subject to life and make your talk worthwhile and memorable.
Inexperienced speakers often make the mistake of trying to cover far too much material and providing excessive detail in one talk. They are also prone to overly long introductions and spending too much time discussing methods. It is generally wise to edit the introduction ruthlessly Give only the necessary details regarding methods (unless, of course, your talk is on methods). Narrow the focus rather than try to cover a large, complex topic with generalities in a short period. Even when the program specifically calls for an overview, pull out one or two points to discuss in as much detail as time permits. If you showcase one or two points that support or exemplify the generalities, your talk will be much more interesting and more easily retained.
Math, equations and symbols do not necessarily strengthen the science of a scientific talk but they do slow the pace, make it harder to understand (even for experts) and create an opportunity for confusion, the opposite of "clarity."
Many people, even mathematically trained scientists, tune out when math is introduced into a talk. If equations, calculations and symbols are essential for understanding your topic, consider preparing handouts for later study. You can then concentrate on explaining the relevance of the mathematics and symbols rather
than using your allotted time at the lectern on the equations and their solutions.
If you must use mathematics in your presentation, slow down, and talk the audience through each equation, step by step. Do not assume each individual can find a way through it and grasp the relevance.
Although scientific topics are serious, a little politically correct humor or an occasional light touch can vary the rhythm and significantly add to the audience's favorable reaction and memory of your talk. Don't go overboard, however, nor use this time to debut your stand-up comedy routine.
Drafting the Talk
Those opposed to a complete written draft offer the following argument. In some nonscientific environments it is quite acceptable to read a prepared talk verbatim. The accepted style in scientific
meetings, however, is to convey that you are completely familiar and comfortable with your material and that you are able to speak more or less extemporaneously on your subject. A few notes or an outline and some visual aids should suffice for those who know what they are talking about. A word-for-word draft may inhibit that conversational style. This approach probably does work for some, but it is quite risky for most of us asked to speak clearly and concisely on a specific topic for a specified time.
Proponents of a complete written draft maintain that the exercise can greatly improve the effectiveness of any speaker. The primary objective of a scientific talk is clarity, which is achieved through concise language, logical sequence and careful organization. A rich vocabulary facilitates the painting of vivid, attention-grabbing word pictures. Such precision, order and verbal vibrancy can be accomplished far better with written language than with informal speech. But don't be overly constrained by the strict rules of written English or the formal academic style of scientific papers because the next step in the drafting process is to translate the written science into spoken science. The two are quite different. It is difficult to captivate an audience with a talk given in scientific journalese. With a well-prepared written draft you can fine-tune and rehearse your talk into a dynamic, vital presentation, complete with the desired conversational style.
If the latter method of preparation appeals to you more than the casual approach of the first method, write out your complete talk, practice it, then whittle it down to outline form or notes to take to the lectern. Your visual aids can also serve as notes, but be very careful not to fall into the trap of merely reading your visual material to the audience in lieu of giving the talk.
Consider the following guidelines in drafting and editing your talk.
Death (or Worse) to Those Who Run Overtime
It is rude and egotistical to exceed your allotted time. Running overtime also suggests a lack of preparation and experience. A good chairperson can justifiably be quite abrupt with a speaker who exceeds the allotted time.
Never try to squeeze your 30-minute talk into a 20-minute speaking slot. Speaking as fast as you can and flashing through your visual material at the speed of light is not the way to condense your talk into the specified time. Your audience will be annoyed and will absorb little of your presentation.
Preparing a short talk can be a very constructive exercise for the scientific speaker. The short time allocated will force you to assemble your talk very carefully, to be a severe editor of your words and to be an exacting critic of your visual aids. Every word must count. Every table, equation or figure must specifically and significantly contribute to the points you are covering. Good editing skills and objective scrutiny of your visual aids are essential to preparing a good short talk. They are talents that also will serve you well in preparing all your oral presentations.
Many public speaking authorities recommend preparing a talk that is a few minutes shorter than your allotted time. When you reach the podium, you will need the extra time to adjust the microphone, respond to the person who introduced you, position your visual materials or make an ad hoc comment about a preceding talk. It is better to conclude with a little time left over than to rush at the end (when you are making your final points or summarizing) or, heaven help you, to run overtime.
One very useful technique to help stay within your allotted time is to have one visual piece that can be shown at any time and used to deliver your closing message or summary. It should take no more than three minutes to get through. When you are three minutes from your time limit, show this piece. Introduce it by saying something to the effect of, "If you continue with the details or data as I have been describing them, you finally arrive at this clear set of conclusions."
Even if you find that you have run out of time, never, never close your talk by saying, "I think I'll stop here." It sends a loud and clear message that you have not adequately prepared. A few, brief words of conclusion or summary are far better than leaving your audience thinking that you just ran out of steam or lost interest in your subject.
Practice, Practice, Practice
It is not enough to read through your talk a couple of times. Things that read very well can sound very awkward. Speaking aloud, while standing in front of some type of audience (spouse, friend or colleague) who will give you honest, constructive feedback, will help you find the rough spots so you can smooth them out before you are on the podium. Rehearsals, with visual aids, are also essential to timing your talk properly and achieving the comfortable, confident, conversational style considered good form in scientific circles. Another valuable rehearsal technique is to tape-record your talk. Listen to the entire presentation without your notes. Do your thoughts flow logically? Are the transitions smooth? Do you vary your voice and your pace for emphasis, to avoid monotony, and as you transition to new thoughts? Do you hear any "ers," "ahs," "ums?"
Videotaping a practice session is the Rolls Royce of rehearsal techniques. Many people loathe seeing (or hearing) themselves on tape, and it does take more time and effort, but it is a guaranteed method for polishing your presentation to award-winning quality. Run the tape first and just listen, as though to a voice tape (above). Run it again and watch for these things: Do you make eye contact? What are your hands doing? Do you smile occasionally? How is your posture? Do you notice any distracting mannerisms? This method of critiquing your presentation, while somewhat painful, is brutally honest and, therefore, extremely valuable.
Practice with your visual aids. Many speakers undermine their own talks through clumsy handling of visual materials. Practice pointing to the image on the screen and turning back to the audience. If using transparencies, practice positioning the sheet, then stepping out of the way so your body does not obstruct the audience's view. If possible, practice in a room that is close to the size of the room in which you will deliver your talk.
It is very important to rehearse a talk that you have given before, especially if it has been some time since you last gave it. Concentrate on making it sound fresh and new, for your sake and that of anyone in the audience who may have heard it before. Check information in the text and in your visual aids that may need updating.
If a speaker ready room is provided, use it! Practicing in the actual presentation room is best. You may have practiced your talk fifty times at home or in the office, but you can benefit enormously from one last run-through in the actual presentation room or one similar to it. Such a rehearsal will provide several benefits:
Dress
Play it safe, use your common sense and, remember, neatness always counts. If you err, it's wiser to err on the side of being slightly overdressed rather than underdressed.
Special Requirements
When your topic is determined and/or agreed upon, also ascertain the date, time and place of the talk and how long you will have to speak. Mark the speaking date on your calendar when you commit to a talk, along with any other deadlines associated with the speaking engagement. That sounds completely obvious, but many can tell you of the embarrassment and irritation resulting from misunderstandings or forgotten commitments. Request a written confirmation of the details to verify what is expected.
Before you can begin drafting a talk, you must define the purpose, topic and appropriate depth and scope of the information you will be presenting.
The hallmark of any successful scientific talk is clarity. To achieve clarity, the talk must be well organized and logically structured. It should have an introduction, a body and a conclusion. The language must be concise. Audiences are annoyed, irritated and frustrated by talks they cannot understand. You may have something very important to say, but audiences seldom will struggle to find it.
There are mixed views on whether or not it is advisable to write out every word you plan to say.
"Be sincere; be brief; be seated." - Franklin D. Roosevelt
Defining the scope and roughly organizing your material to fit within the specified time are among the first steps in preparing your talk. Granted, it is difficult to edit what might represent a life's work into 20 to 30 minutes, but, remember, other speakers face the same dilemma and most somehow manage it. Conversely, many inexperienced speakers wonder, "How on earth can I possibly have enough to say to fill 20 to 30 minutes?" To avoid the humiliation of appearing to have little worthwhile to contribute, they prepare overly long talks and do not rehearse enough to get the timing right.
Accomplished public speakers advise that rehearsals are almost as important to a good oral presentation as the actual text of the talk.
Transforming a talk into a good or outstanding talk takes time. There is no way around it. A lack of practice will be very clear to your audience and will be interpreted as a lack of commitment, professionalism and/or competence.
Scientific meetings and gatherings generally permit more latitude in what is considered appropriate attire than do bankers' or lawyers' conferences. Like it or not, however, we are all judged in part on our appearance. Extremes, either too casual or too overdone, are not good ideas if you have a speaking role at a gathering.
As a matter of courtesy and to minimize on-site aggravation and inconvenience, it is wise to inform those responsible for your speaking engagement of any special needs you may have. If, for example, you use a wheelchair and need assistance to be lifted to a stage, extra maneuvering room on the stage, projection equipment positioned at a particular height or a lapel microphone instead of a lectern mike, let someone know in advance. It is generally quite simple to accommodate such requirements in advance whereas last minute adjustments can be awkward.
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